Columbine High School Essay Example for Free

aquilegia High School Es speculateYou are a sociologist who is interested in studying shoal furiousness. run how you might approach the study of this phenomenon as a functionalist, a conflict theorist and a emblematic inter proceeding. Returning violence for violence multiplies violence, adding deeper darkness to a night already devoid of stars loathe cannot drive out hate only love can do that.Martin Luther King Jr. The trouble we are facing today with violence in the schools is a major concern with communities everywhere. School violence has escalated from one-on-one weaponless fights for personal disagreements with said person this is no longer the case. Due to the outward influences of media, tv set games, and society in general, this has escalated into all-out, deadly weapon assaults on innocent lives for moderatenesss they themselves are usually unaware for pillowcase Columbine High School massacre and Montreal, Canada shooting. Sociologist however have developed different approaches to evaluate the phenomenon finished with(predicate) different perspective functionalist, conflict theorist and symbolic integrationist, which would be aptly discussed in the proceeding paragraphs.Functionalist research at the implications of crime and control polices rather than directly trying to explain the causes of the behavior. According to Parson sit down a social arrangement consist of mutually dependant parts, parts contributing to functioning of system and moving equilibrium. However pertaining to the issue of school violence, I would, following the functionalist perspective look at school violence as way to return to stability within a society thus retentivity proper balance .Therefore I would view it as a positive, because the disturbance (school violence) exists more perilously it encourages the society to come up with better solutions to elevate the problem so it encourages progress. For examples the Columbine Massac with occurred lead to y outhful ideas to combat school violence .A number of new programs were introduced, emphasis was placed on better parenting skills, retentiveness guns out of hands of kids ,better school security, more counseling programs and bett3er preventative measure, etc.When these methods were implemented no action to that extreme occurred within that society so their fore the youth violence was reduced and the society locomote and the society in return became a better place and progress was made. Conflict perspective holds that social stratification is dysfunctional and harmful in society, with inequalityperpetuated because it benefits the rich and powerful at the expense of the poor. A sputter for dominance among competing social groups (classes, genders, races, religions, etc.).When conflict theorists look at society, they see the social domination of subordinate groups through the power, authority, and coercion of dominant groups. As it results to school violence using the conflict theor ist approach, I would say the violence will only exist at level of exploitation and unworthy or tough unfairly compared to other children they felt a level of inequality and they reacted in a way to cumulate power over the people who inflicted pain upon them.For example lets take the Columbine shooting, jibe to the conflict theorist perspective say that the shootings were inevitable as the exploited, bullied kids eventually had enough and rose up against the bourgeoisie, or the kids that did the bullying. Eric Harris one of the boys who participated the shooting opened his journal with the words I hate the fing world. Showing steep levels of hatred to which he portrayed, he wanted to get back at every one who did him wrong. after analyzing the two individuals journals it was clear cut that they both had problem with society and somehow they did them something which infiltrated this hate for them.So we can see the reason for them to perform these atrocious acts were to gain a sen se of dominances in their mind over these people. When doing the act we see the boys smiling while people were being hurting wake a sign of relief in their face and sense of happiness to them that they revenge to the world for inflicting so much of pain upon them.Analyzing them for a conflict theorist point of view I would say the reason for the boys committing suicide after was to get away from everything they already accomplished the goal they wanted so they resolved to end their life what more is there to live for when victory was served? Symbolic integrationist view relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction. Thus, society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretation. Symbolic interaction view school violence as

Requirements of legislation Essay Example for Free

Requirements of ordinance EssayExplain how the requirements of legislation, codes of practice and agreed ways of working influence professional control. Legislation has direct us to the point of view that supervision is the requirement for all provide 1) National tokenish Standards provision good practice of supervision is a mandatory requirement set by National Minimum Standards in UK covering all criteria and aspects of practice (for example policy and procedures job descriptions and charge a end between outcomes for organisation and the development of the staff), carefulnesser development needs (for instance professional training), ensuring that staff gets guard from supervisors in the area where they are non coping well. In my setting the staff is supported for acquiring continuous professional development courses offered on-line by the HighScope Research Foundation, time is set for in-house CPD sessions by supervisors.One- to oneness sessions are held by the s upervisor to identify the gaps and allocate the distribution of CPD. Staff is given clear exact lines on safe guarding and other policies, procedures and the job descriptions, realistic outcomes are set for the nursery by supervision, keeping in view the current level of development of the staff. 2) Revised EYFS Welfare requirements In our practices this has lead to staff being advised to report to any inappropriate behavior of other staff leading to jest at and neglecting of children in the setting and the supervisors maintain absolute confidentiality of such matters Use of mobile phone is prohibited. Staff is not allowed to take pictures of children from their mobile phones. Alternatively sharing pictures on social media websites is strictly prohibited Staff is back up to take on CPD 100% financial aid is provided to take online HighScope courses, once the gaps are identified by talking through the supervisor.3) CWDC resources performance management and dynamic and enabling supervisory relationship This has provided a supervision tool, where quality and service standards are met at the same time retaining the staff. In my setting staff is support to take new skills and knowledge and implement them. They take balanced and calculated risks and experience their new acquirement in action, without the supervisors taking control of their activities and blaming them for unexpected outcomes. Eventually this leads to success in outcomes. High quality care services are provided with new skills, development of integrated working is supported along with CPD.BibliographyBookJane Cook, (2013) leadership and Management is Early Years, Practical Pre-School Books Websitewww.makingthedifference.com.au//professional-supervision https//www.childwelfare.gov/management/mgmt_supervision/performance/ http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_indicator

Scientific method Essay Example for Free

Scientific method EssayPolicy and utilization come tos of look for funded by the scotch and Social interrogation Council A case case of the Future of bring in curriculum, approach and analysis Steven Wooding, Edward Nason, Lisa Klautzer, Jennifer Rubin, Stephen Hanney, Jonathan Grant Policy and work stirs of look funded by the Economic and Social look Council A case body of work of the Future of draw design, approach and analysis Steven Wooding, Edward Nason, Lisa Klautzer, Jennifer Rubin, Stephen Hanney, Jonathan Grant Prep bed for the Economic and Social explore Council. The interrogation described in this motif was prepargond for the Economic and Social look for Council. The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit question organization providing objective analysis and effective solutions that address the challenges lining the populace and private sectors around the world. RANDs realityations do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its study clients and spon sors. R is a registered trademark. Copyright 2007 RAND Corporation All rights reserved.No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or info storage and retrieval) with emerge permission in writing from RAND. Published 2007 by the RAND Corporation 1776 Main Street, P. O. lash 2138, Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138 1200 South Hayes Street, Arlington, VA 22202-5050 4570 Fifth Avenue, Suite 600, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2665 Westbrook Centre, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 1YG, United Kingdom RAND universal resource locator http//www.rand. org/ RAND europium URL http//www. rand. org/randeurope.To assign RAND documents or to obtain additional teaching, contact Distribution Services Teleph champion (310) 451-7002 Fax (310) 451-6915 telecommunicate emailprotected org Preface This report, prepared for the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), learns the impact of the ESRCs Future of Work program on form _or_ system of government makers, professional practitioners and other stems outside academia.It to a fault explores the pertinency of the retribution good example, a conceptual manakin for investigate paygrade, to societal science. The Future of Work programme was an initiative that aimed to bring together leading look intoers in the United Kingdom in an investigation of the future prospects for paid and unpaid work. The scratch line phase of the programme started in October 1998, followed by a second phase in January 2001. The report is presented in two volumes. This volume presents the conclusions of the search and summarises the methods and results.The second volume includes a brief literature go over of the military rank of complaisant science and the influence of investigate on insurance an overview of the Future of Work programme exact analysis of a survey of Future of Work PIs (Principal Investigators) and four complete case study narratives of visualizes fro m the programme. The report will be of interest to the ESRC and constitution makers in the wider social science and constitution community who are interested in how social science informs indemnity and practice. It will overly be of interest to those development methods to esteem search.The research was led by RAND Europe in collaboration with the Health Economics Research Group (HERG). RAND Europe is an independent not-for-profit think tank and research organisation that serves the public interest by providing evidence for policy making and public debate. HERG, a Specialist Research Institute of Brunel University, has as one of its main research themes, methodo system of logical and empirical studies of the impact of research. This report has been accomplice check overed in accordance with RANDs quality assurance standards ( observe http//www. rand. org/about/standards/) and at that placefore may be represented as a RAND Europe intersection point.For more information abo ut RAND Europe or this document, please contact Steven Wooding Senior Policy analyst Tel +44 1223 273897 Email emailprotected org RAND Europe Westbrook Centre, Milton Road Cambridge. CB4 1YG, United Kingdom Jonathan Grant Deputy to the President Tel +44 1223 293 893 Email emailprotected org emailprotected org iii Contents Preface iii Overview of impact vii Executive summary ix Acknowledgments.. xiii CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 CHAPTER 2 Methodology and project structure .. 3 2. 1 The analytical good example .3 2. 2 sign tasks .. 5 2. 2. 1 Brief review of social science impacts literature . 5 2. 2. 2 Review of FoW documentation 5 2. 2. 3 Key seed interviews. 5 2. 2. 4 Output of initial tasks 5 2.3 requital survey .. 6 2. 4 Interim report 7 2. 5 Case studies. 7 2. 6 Analysis workshop 9 CHAPTER 3 Results .11 3. 1 Key findings from the literature review and key informant interviews.. 11 3. 2 Summary of results from survey.. 13 3. 3 User interviews 26 3. 4 Case study summaries.. 2 7 3. 5 Case study A. 27 3.6 Case study B. 30 3. 7 Case study C 33 3. 8 Case study D 35 3. 9 Concluding comments 37 CHAPTER 4 Discussion.. 39 4.1 Impact of the FoW programme .. 39 4. 1. 1 The FoW programme has had significant wider impacts on policy and practice 39 v Policy and practice impacts of ESRC funded research RAND Europe 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 1. 2 What impact has the FoW programme had? 39 4. 1. 3 Why has the FoW programme had an impact? 40 4. 1. 4 What affects the impact of projects ..41 Applying the retribution Model to wider impacts of social science .. 42 4. 2. 1 The Payback fabric can be applied to social science .. 42 4. 2. 2 Generalisation of categories.. 42 4. 2. 3 General points about assessing impacts of social science . 43 Further research.. 45 Concluding comments.46 REFERENCES. 47 Reference list.. 49 vi Overview of impact The Future of Work (FoW) programme succeeded in speech together an interdisciplinary group of academics, bear upon constructive discussions an d providing ingress to policy makers to agree the wider impact of the research. The FoW programme had significant academic and wider impacts. in that respect was genuine output from the programme in the area of knowledge production. To experience this has included 11 books and 69 book chapters four journal special issues and over 100 peer reviewed articles, alongside over 200 conference presentations. Six of the researchers felt they had changed the style of their research field. In call of capacity development, involvement in the FoW programme was seen as a moderate or considerable ratifier to 20 academic promotions, and the most common benefit of the programme cited by researchers were the opportunities to meet other researchers and in providing fora for discussion.In our survey of Principal Investigators (PIs) they reported 50 policy impacts, across a domain of organisations including internal government, policy-making parties, employers and unions. Contributions to the policy debate included more than 60 working papers and official reports seminars for the DTI, piteous Pay Commission and Cabinet Office. More directly there were nine secondments, which placed the researchers in a policy environment, including a senior role in the DTI Women and Equality unit, where the researcher was able to influence strategy and policy decisions relating to equality.Further specific examples of policy impact were the chairmanship of the TUC Partnership Institute by a researcher, allowing him to impact on employer/union relationships the drafting of guidance notes on complying with employment legislation for the DTI by a research group direct input into the Work and Families Bill (2003), which introduced new legislation on maternity and fatherhood bring out and citation in a House of Lords judgement on pay and conditions, specifically looking at unfair dismissal.Outside the government sectors our case studies identified a number of impacts on employers, includi ng changes in workload policies and career structure effects on maternity and family friendly working practices in a large consulting organisation and the negotiation of union-employer partnership deals. vii Policy and practice impacts of ESRC funded research RAND Europe public exposure Almost half of the PIs felt the extensive networks of the political platform Director, and steering committee, had reard them with direct access to policy makers.These policy makers included those in the Work Foundation and a government agency. In addition, the FoW Media Fellow enhance the impact of the research on more distant policy makers. He achieved this by producing research summaries gear up in the context of latest policy and other research findings. Crucially, he worked to timescales suitable for policy makers quite a than those of researchers. rating methodology This evaluation utilize the Payback Framework as a conceptual structure and showed that the framework is useful for evalua ting the wider impacts of social science.We used a number of techniques to collect data for the study document review key informant interviews an on-line survey and case studies. However, we found that some impacts are inaccessible to evaluation, because of political sensitivity or anonymity guarantees. viii Executive summary We get windd how the ESRC Future of Work (FoW) programme influenced policy and professional practice. While doing so we reflected on the methods used to assess and identify impacts. Specifically, we considered whether the Payback Framework, a conceptual model for research evaluation, was appropriate for social science.Here we summarise the key findings. The FoW brought together an interdisciplinary group of academics, stimulated constructive discussion and provided access to policy makers. This may be specially significant devoted the view expressed by key informants that employment policy and oversight practices may be especially hard to reach with evidenc e as they are heavily contextual and apt to be influenced by fashion and ideology. Impacts The FoW programme had significant impacts on knowledge and research.This was evident in the numerous publications and conference presentations placed to the programme. near Principal Investigators (PIs) attributed incremental changes in their field of research to their projects, and some attributed a clear change of direction in their field of research to their projects. Most of the projects also influenced other researchers. The FoW programme had significant impacts on public policy. Although some PIs could identify specific impacts of their research, many found it difficult to identify actual policies they had influenced.PIs generally vox populi they had influenced policy in an incremental way and informed the policy debate. PIs also gave many presentations of FoW research to policy audiences. The FoW programme had significant impacts on career development. More than 75% of PIs idea the FoW programme had helped them to form networks with researchers, policy makers and practitioners n early(a) half of PIs attributed career development for researchers to their FoW projects, including nine secondments to government. The FoW programme impacted on the policies and practice of organisations.There were many presentations given in organisations PIs thought organisational practices were influenced by the research, but only some were easily identifiable. The policy environment determines policy impact. In one case the heightened awareness among policy makers of issues around maternity leave and women returning to work ix Policy and practice impacts of ESRC funded research RAND Europe provided fertile ground for research on how women make these decisions. In a second case the waning interest in union-employer partnerships was thought to bind reduced the impact of a TUC institute chaired by a designer FoW researcher.In general, the FoW research seldom caused major changes in policy but often resulted in impacts such as stimulating debate, fine-tuning policy, dispelling myths and providing confirmatory patronise. Dissemination The FoW programme provided access to policy makers. It effectively combined the networks of the Director and steering committee, and provided the researchers access to these networks which included key policy makers in the DTI, Low Pay Commission (LPC) and Cabinet Office. The FoW Media Fellow enhanced the impact on policy makers.This was achieved largely for two reasons. First, because his summaries of the FoW research were produced to a timescale suitable for policy makers, rather than researchers. And second because they were accessible to policy makers setting the FoW research in the context of other research and current policy discussions. Researchers and policy makers differed in their views on how best to disseminate to policy makers. The two groups consider contrastive channels to be important researchers favouring academ ic publications, policy makers favouring the Media Fellows publications.The Payback Framework is a useful model for evaluating social science research. The Payback Framework provides a structure for research evaluation. It comprises a logic model of the research and dissemination process and a classification scheme for the immediate and wider impacts of research. This consists of cinque categories Knowledge Impacts on future research Impacts on policy Impacts on practice and Wider social and stinting impacts. Both the literature review and fieldwork showed that the Framework could be effectively applied to social science research.Impacts and attributionSome impacts may be inaccessible to evaluation, for example some impacts were politically sensitive, so participants requested that they were not discussed. Also, subjects of the original research may have been influenced by their participation in that research, but their identity could not be revealed to the researchers in this eva luation. A confluence of inputs and incremental knowledge creep make it difficult to attribute policy change to a given input. The Payback Framework provides a structure in which to explore the context indoors which projects are developed.However, the incremental nature of policy remains a difficulty in assessing impact at the project level. There are few mechanisms in social science to systematise and synthesise research. In contrast to biomedical science, in the fields covered by the FoW programme there are fewer formal mechanisms to systematically review research these mechanisms can offer tracers of policy influence. x RAND Europe Executive summary Timing Research on impacts may happen too early or too late. If research on impacts occurs too early, some impacts may not yet have occurred.If it occurs too late, certain impacts may have already come and gone. This possibility of transience makes it harder to investigate the impacts, as they may not be captured by a current snapsh ot of policies and policy debates. In order to provide a comprehensive view of the wider impacts of research this project suggests it would be important to warn researchers at the start of the project about likely evaluations provide researchers with a mechanism to capture early impacts and thus evaluate research after further impacts have had time to develop, probably 5-10 years after culmination of the research.The literature suggests that for research relating to hot topics in policy, initial impact is likely to occur earlier and that 2 years post completion may provide the best time frame for evaluation. Implementation of evaluation There was widespread cooperation in the evaluation. The majority of PIs (including all case study PIs), 80% of projectd research users, and others nominated by PIs, agreed to participate in the research when approached. Researchers and users may prefer structured interviews to scripted surveys. Our experience also suggests that such interviews woul d provide more useful information for evaluation.Our on-line survey required significantly more of most participants time than predicted. xi Acknowledgments This study would have been impossible without the generous support of those involved with the Future of Work programme we thank them for their constructive criticism and for sparing their time for interviews and to action in our survey. We would particularly like to thank those researchers whose grants were selected as case studies. We would also like to thank veronica Littlewood of the Economic and Social Research Council for her help and advice, including at the analysis workshop.Finally, we would like to thank prof Martin Buxton and Stijn Hoorens who acted as the quality assurance reviewers. xiii CHAPTER 1 Introduction This report explores the wider impacts of social science research how research affects policy, practitioner behaviour and public opinion. It does this by examining the Economic and Social Research Councils ( ESRC) Future of Work (FoW) research programme. The ESRC is the UKs largest research funder and training agency addressing stinting and social concerns. As such it aims to provide high quality research on issues of importance to business, the public sector and government.The FoW programme set out to bring together leading UK researchers, across a wide range of disciplines, in order to investigate the future prospects for paid and unpaid work. The programme was shaped by a consultation exercise involving one hundred forty policy makers, academics and practitioners, carried out by Professor Peter Nolan in 1997. The first phase of the programme started in October 1998, followed by a second phase in January 2001. The total funding of the programme amounted to ? 4 one million million million and attracted 221 applications for the first phase, of which 19 were supported. A further eight projects were supported in the second phase.The aims of the programme are shown in Box 1. To crea te the evidence base that would and so ground theories of work To enhance public understanding of the critical developments most likely to impact on peoples working lives To sharpen accounts of the future of work by systematic mapping of past and present shifts and continuities To foster interdisciplinary and proportional perspectives To use innovative methods to engage with research users To act as a focus for debate within and between the academic, practitioner and policy-making communities Box 1. Aims of the FoW programme.Peter Nolan, Montague Burton Chair of Industrial Relations at Leeds, went on to direct the programme. He encouraged interaction between the research groups, promoted dissemination of programme findings and increase the programmes profile. The Director was assisted by a programme advisory committee of senior representatives from government, the Trades married couple Congress (TUC), business and academia. The advisory group attended meetings, participated in site visits to meet researchers, and provided access to policy networks. The written dissemination activities were led by Robert Taylor, a 1.Policy and practice impacts of ESRC funded research RAND Europe former journalist at the Financial Times, who was appointed as the programmes Media Fellow. He wrote a serial of seven booklets, aimed at policy makers, that described FoW research and set it in context. The output of the programme has been substantial its outputs so far include 11 books, 69 book chapters, over 100 refereed articles and over four hundred media mentions. This study explores the wider impacts of the programme in more detail. Over the past decade there has been an increasing floriculture of accountability affecting government spending.This climate has led ESRC to investigate the most effective ways to evaluate social science research, and to demonstrate the wider impact of its research on society. This report builds on experience of evaluating research in the welln ess services and biomedical settings and seeks to apply it to social science. In this work we take the Payback Framework, originally developed by the Health Economics Research Group (HERG) at Brunel University, and test its applicability to social science.The Payback Framework was initially developed to examine the payback of health services research (Buxton et al., 1994 Buxton and Hanney, 1994 Buxton and Hanney, 1996). It was further developed in an earlier ESRC analysis of non-academic impact from research (Cave and Hanney, 1996) and subsequently extended to examine basic and clinical biomedical research (Wooding et al. , 2005 Wooding et al. , 2004).This study tested whether the Framework could be applied to examine the payback of social science research. To do this we briefly reviewed the literature on social science evaluation and the common models for examining the impact of evidence on policy, and concluded that they could be aligned with the Payback Framework.We then used t he Payback Framework to examine the research projects in the FoW programme. We used the Payback Framework to structure a programme-wide questionnaire and a series of four case studies. Finally, we used these three streams of evidence to summarise the wider impacts of the FoW study and to see what can be learnt from the programme. We also used the evidence to develop a refined Payback Framework and consider its applicability for evaluating the wider impacts of social science research. 2 CHAPTER 2 Methodology and project structure.This project set out to examine the wider impacts of the FoW programme and to test the applicability of the Payback Framework to social science. It used a number of data collection methods (shown establishedally in Figure 1). First we conducted a brief review of the literature concerning the ways in which social science affects policy and how the impacts of social science can be assessed. To develop our understanding of the FoW programme we reviewed documen ts from the ESRC and interviewed key individuals.We then surveyed all the Principal Investigators (PIs) who held grants from the FoW programmeto investigate the wider impacts of their grants, and asked them to nominate a user of their research for follow up via a telephone interview. To examine the pathways to impact in more detail we carried out four case studies of FoW PIs. The data collected through and throughout the study were then analysed in a one-day workshop. More detail on each of these stages is provided in the sections that follow. Figure 1. Project schematic 2. 1 The analytical framework The analytical framework for the study was based on the Payback Framework.The Payback Framework consists of two elements a logic model representation of the complete research process (for the purposes of research evaluation), and a series of categories to classify the individual paybacks from research. The logic model and categories of the Payback Framework that served as the jump poin t for this study are presented below in Figure 2 and Box 2 respectively. The logic model provides a framework for analysing the story of a research idea from initial inception 3 Policy and practice impacts of ESRC funded research RAND Europe.(Stage 0) through the research process (Stage 2) into dissemination (Interface B) and on towards its impact on people and society (Stage 6). The model is meant as a research tool to facilitate cross-case analysis. It does this by providing a common structure for each case study thereby ensuring cognate information for each study is recorded in the same place. The model is not meant to imply that the research process itself is linear. If necessary, individual pieces of information can be recorded in more than one place in the Framework to ensure they are picked up in the relevant cross-case comparisons.Figure 2. The version of the Payback Framework used as a starting point for the study1 Knowledge production Journal articles conference presentati ons books book chapters research reports Research targeting and capacity mental synthesis Better targeting of future research development of research skills, personnel and overall research capacity staff development and educational benefits Informing policy and product development Improved information bases for political and executive decisions development of pharmaceutical products and therapeutic techniques Health and health sector benefits.Improved health cost reduction in speech communication of existing services qualitative improvements in the process of delivery improved equity in service delivery Broader economic benefits Wider economic benefits from commercial exploitation of innovations arising from RD economic benefits from a healthy men and reduction in working days lost Box 2. The payback categories of the Payback Framework used as a starting point for the study (Source Hanney et al. , 2004) The categories of the Payback Framework are considered in the Discussion sec tion of this report where the applicability of the model to social science research is discussed.1 Source Hanney et al. , 2004 4 RAND Europe Methodology and project structure 2. 2 2. 2. 1 Initial tasks Brief review of social science impacts literature A brief review of the literature, presented in mass II, examines frameworks of evaluation previously used to examine the impact of social science research as sanitary as models of research impact. The review was intended to identify lessons from the literature that would inform the current study, but was not intended to be comprehensive. 2. 2.2 Review of FoW documentation At the outset of the project we also reviewed the ESRC records coating the FoW programme. This informed our interview protocol for the key informant interviews and provided the basis of our overview of the FoW programme, which was used as background information throughout the study. This overview is presented in Volume II. 2. 2. 3 Key informant interviews To gain a deeper understanding of the overall context and impact of the FoW programme we carried out interviews with six key informants.Suitable key informants were identified by ESRC and by the Director of the FoW programme o o o o o o Professor Peter Nolan (FoW Programme Director) John Hougham (Chair of Advisory Board) Professor Toby Wall (Member of panel that appointed the Programme Director and Member of Advisory Panel) Bill Callaghan (Member of Research Priorities Board and Chair of Commissioning Panel) Professor William cook (PI on two grants, one in each phase of the programme) Robert Taylor (Programme Media Fellow). These interviews were written up and examined for themes relating to the wider impact of social science and the FoW programme.These themes were then clustered and used to inform the refinement of the Payback Framework. We also carried out a second follow-up interview with Peter Nolan late in the project to examine various issues that had been raised in the survey and cas e study phases of the project. 2. 2. 4 Output of initial tasks The findings of the initial tasks suggested that the logic model aspect of the Payback Framework was generally appropriate for the social sciences. However, the categories needed some generalisation our initial revision of these categories was presented in our interim report to the ESRC and are shown in Box 3.5 Policy and practice impacts of ESRC funded research RAND Europe Knowledge production Journal articles conference presentations books + chapters research reports Research targeting and capacity building Sparking new research proposals providing research training supporting career advancement Informing policy and product development Raising the profile/awareness of existing research among policy/practitioners makers dispelling/resisting myths providing policy options prioritising areas designing management assessment tools developing benchmarking protocols Employment sector benefits.Improved working conditions highe r participation in workforce more effective regulation Societal and broader economic benefits Lower stress among workers improved public health improved mental health through decreased unemployment greater productivity improved equity Box 3 Draft Payback Categories for the Social Sciences afer initial tasks. 2. 3 Payback survey To examine the range and types of payback produced across the FoW programme we invited all the PIs to complete an online survey. The survey concentrated on the wider impacts of the projects, but also asked some questions about the initiation of the research.The survey questions were based on those used in previous payback studies and modified in light of the key informant interviews and literature review2. PIs were invited to participate in the survey exploitation personalised emails which contained a direct hyperlink to their questionnaire. PIs who had grants in both phases of the FoW programme received two emails linking to two speciate surveys. The surve y was implemented using MMIC web questionnaire software. 3 Data were downloaded from MMIC and analysed using SPSS version 14 and Microsoft outperform version 2000. 4 The questionnaire was originally drafted on paper.The paper draft was reviewed by the ESRC and by both of the projects quality assurance reviewers. After incorporating their comments it was converted into a web questionnaire and again reviewed by the ESRC. We also asked a RAND researcher from outside the project team to test the questionnaire by talking us through their thoughts as they filled it in. This helped us to identify misunderstandings and confusing questions. 2 Payback questionnaires first used in Buxton et al. , 2000 and subsequently refined for payback analysis of the NHS Research Implementation Methods Programme and the Dutch and UK Health.

Phar Mor Case Essay Example for Free

Phar Mor show window EssayBetween 1985 and 1992, Phar-Mor grew from 15 stores to 310 stores in 32 states, posting sales of more than $3 bi11ion. By seemingly a11standards, Phar-Mor was a rising star touted by some sell experts as the next Wal-Mart. In fact, Sam Walton once announced that the only company he feared at a11in the intricacy ofWal-Mart was Phar-Mor. Mic find out Monus, Phar-Mors president, COO and founder, was a local hero in his hometown of Youngstown, Ohio. As demonstration of his loyalty, Monus put Phar-Mors home in a deserted subdivision store in downtown Youngstown. Monus-known as shy and retract to friends, cold and aloof to others-became quite flashy as Phar-Mor grew. Before the fa11of his Phar-Mor empire, Monus was known for buying his friends expensive gifts and he was building an extravagant personal residence, complete with an indoor basketba11court. He was also an initial equity investor in the Colorado Rockies major league baseba11 franchise. This affiliation with the Colorado Rockies and other high profile sporting events sponsored by Phar-Mor fed Monus love for the high life and fast action. He frequently flew to Las Vegas, where a suite was evermore available for him at Caesars Palace.Mickey would often impress his traveling companions by giving them thousands of do11arsto gamble. Phar-Mor was a deep-discount retail chain se11inga variety of household products and prescription drugs at substantia11ylower prices than other discount stores. The key to the low prices was supply buying, the phrase Monus used to describe his strategy of loading up on products when suppliers were offering rockbottom prices. The strategy of deep-discount sell is to beat the other guys prices, thereby attracting the cost-conscious consumers. Phar-Mors prices were so low that competitors wondered how Phar-Mor could do it.Monus strategy was to underse11Wal-Mart in each trade where the both retailers directly competed. Unfortunately, Phar-Mors p rices were so low that Phar-Mor began losing money. Unwi11ingto a11owthese shortfa11sto damage Phar-Mors appearance of success, Monus and his team began to engage in fanciful accounting so that PharMor never reported these losses in its financial statements. Federal snake oil examiners discerned posterior that 1987 was the last year Phar-Mor actua11ymade a profit. Investors, relying upon these erroneous financial statements, saw Phar-Mor as an opportunity to cash in on the retailing craze.Among the big investors were Westinghouse Credit Corp. , Sears Roebuck Co. , ma11developer Edward J. de Bartolo, and the prestigious Lazard Freres Co. Corporate Partners Investment Fund. Prosecutors say banks and investors put $1. 14 biUion into Phar-Mor based on the phony records. The fraud was ultimately uncovered when a travel agent trustworthy a Phar-Mor check signed by Monus paying for expenses that were un associate to Phar-Mor. The agent showed the check to her landlord, who happened t o be a Phar-Mor investor, IUnless otherwise noted, the facts and statements included in this case are based on actual trial transcripts.Case 6 Phar-Mor, Inc. Accounting Fraud, Litigation, and Auditor Liability and he contacted Phar-Mors chief executive officer (CO), David Shapira. On prideful 4, 1992, David Shapira announced to the business community that Phar-Mor had discovered a massive fraud perpetrated primarily by Michael Monus, author president and COO, and Patrick Finn, former chief financial officer (CFO). In order to hide Phar-Mors cash flux problems, attract investors, and make the company look profitable, Monus and Finn altered the Phar-Mors accounting records to understate costs of goods sold and hyperbolize inventory and income.In addition to the financial statement fraud, internal investigations by the company estimated an embezzlement in excess of$10 million. 2 Phar-Mors executives had cooked the books and the magnitude of the collusive management fraud was almo st inconceivable. The fraud was carefully carried out over several(prenominal) years by persons at many organizational layers, including the president and COO, CFO, debility president of markting, director of accounting, controller, and a host of others. Many factors facilitated the Phar-Mor fraud.The following list outlines seven key factors contributing to the fraud and the ability to cover it up for so long. 1. The lack of adequate management info systems (MIS). According to the federal fraud examiners report, Phar-Mors MIS was inadequate on many levels. At one point, a Phar-Mor guilt president raised concerns about the companys MIS systems and organized a committee to address the problem. However, senior officials abstruse in the scheme to defraud Phar-Mor dismissed the vice presidents concerns and ordered the committee disbanded. 2.Poor internal controls. For example, Phar-Mors accounting department was able to bypass normal accounts payable controls by maintaining a suppl y of blank checks on two different bank accounts and using them to make disbursements. Only those involved in the fraud were authorized to admire use of these checks. 3. The hands-off management style of David Shapira, CEO. For example, in at least two instances Shapira was made onward of potential problems with Monus behavior and Phar-Mor financial information. In both cases Shapira chose to distance himself from the knowledge. . Inadequate internal audit function. Ironically, Michael Monus was decreed a member of the audit cOIpmittee. When the internal auditor reported that he wanted to investigate genuine payroll irregularities associated with some of the Phar-Mor related parties, the CFO forestalled these activities and then eliminated the internal audit function all together. 5. collusion among upper management. At least six members ofPhar-Mors upper management, as well as other employees in the accounting department, were involved in the fraud. 6.Phar-Mors knowledge of au dit procedures and objectives. Phar-Mors fraud team was made up of several former auditors, including at least one 2Stem, Gabriella, Phar-Mor Vendors Halt Deliveries More Layoffs Made, The Wall Street Journal, August 10, 1992. 27 Beasley / Buckless / Glover / Prawitt fonner auditor who had worked for Coopers on the Phar-Mor audit. The fraud team indicated that one reason they were successful in hiding the fraud from the auditors was because they knew what the auditors were looking for. 7. Related parties.Coopers Lybrand, in a countersuit, stated that Shapira and Monus set up a web of companies to do business with Phar-Mor. Coopers contended that the companies fonned by Shapira and Monus received millions in payments from PharMor. The federal fraud examiners report confirms Coopers allegations. The complexity of the related parties involved with Phar-Mor made detection of improprieties and fraudulent activity difficult. During its investigation, the federal fraud examiner determine 91 related parties.Attorneys representing creditors and investors pointed out that every year from 1987 to 1992, Coopers Lybrand acted as Phar-Mors auditor and declared the retailers books in order. At the same time, Coopers repeatedly expressed concerns in its annual audit reports and letters to management that Phar-Mor was engaged in hardto-reconcile accounting practices and called for improvements. Coopers identified Phar-Mor in its audit planning documents as a high risk audit, and their auditors documented that Phar-Mor appeared to be systematically exaggerating its accounts receivables and inventory, its primary assets.

The Home Depot-Leadership in Crisis Management Essay Example for Free

The topographic point w behousing- leading in Crisis perplexity EssayThe class computer storage Leadership in Crisis heed Introduction Established in 1979, The interior(a) Depot has proved to be a steer retail club founded upon providing excellent products at competitive prices sold from knowledge adapted sales representatives. Through this c oncept, The photographic plate Depot has dominated both professional and do-it-yourself sales across the world. In 1992, The Home Depot was faced with a new challenge. Hurricane Andrew struck with vengeance and devastated 75,000 homes across Florida. Since 10% of The Home Depots stores were located in Florida, this quickly became a corporate emergency. The Home Depot touchstoneped up to the challenge and stood base their customers. Depot froze prices for supplies the community would need to rebuild or even sold products at costs in some cases. Then-CEO Bernie Marcus stated This is non a time to make money on the back of new(pr enominal) peoples misfortune (Herman). This attitude proved prosperous for The Home Depot when profits change magnitude 44%. With this eye opening experience, The Home Depot decided to take further actions to prepare their employees and customers for future day hurricanes. Paul Raines was hired by The Home Depot and eventually was made the Divisional Leader for the southern Region.His experience in the third world countries made him the perfect candidate to lead Depots crisis management project. When 2004 involute intumesce-nigh, Florida was viscously attacked with four storms in a seven week bound. Through the devastation, The Home Depot utilized this period as a learning tool. The storms of 2004 developed three main Crisis Management concepts for The Home Depots speed, alertness, and chain of command. move was crucial for the community and The Home Depot strived to open as swiftly as possible later on the storms ceased.The Home Depot stayed ahead of the storms by having a surplus of storm relief inventory, as swell up up as workers close enough to be called upon when the major threats had passed. Finally, the employees of The Home Depot downstairsstood who was in knock and calling the shots. From these concepts a Crisis Command midpoint was born for category both hurricanes or worse. The Command Center consisted of conference rooms where representatives could meet and develop a excogitate of attack. With the click of a mouse they were satisfactory to de conditionine what their customers main unavoidably were.The main goal of the Command Center was to tally employee safety, re-open stores, and make sure computer systems were accurately working which included pay roll and cash registers. In 2005 the Command Center was put to the test when Hurricane Katrina attacked the Gulf Coast. The Home Depot began preparations well in chuck out and was ready to reopen stores as soon as possible aft(prenominal) the storm had passed. Managers worked eigh teen instants a day, which paid off when of the thirty-three stores in Katrinas path all only ten loose the following day.With such(prenominal) an elaborate Command Center and well informed staff, The Home Depot was able to provide the communities with the supplies they needed to begin rebuilding their homes (Herman). In 2007, a new crisis was thrown at The Home Depot. This predicament was far more personal than any storm could ever be. Columnist Scott Burns communicatively attacked The Home Depot in a published term on MSN. com. Customer service, products, inventory, and cleanliness were all under attack by dissatisfied customers. In a short period of time, there were over 7,000 posts and 10,000 emails of customer complaints.Corporate Officials were outraged over the online posts. This was a delicate situation that needed to be dealt with. Officials feared making a public statement would draw media attention to the article which had not yet been a hot topic for the television . Then CEO Frank Blake, felt he had no choice but to respond on the MSN post board. He made a lengthy apology to all disgruntled bloggers. He pleaded for all concerns to be forwarded to a private email account. He vowed to improve upon these negative insights and hoped to once again regain their trust. As Blake assumed, the media went crazy and picked up the article.Blake decided to utilize the Crisis Management plan to apportion their current report cardal attack (Herman). At the current time, the main issues faced by the Command Center were graphic tragedys such as hurricanes. From the Crisis Management Command Center, The Home Depot had found the profound to success when intervention natural disasters speed, vigilantness, and a clear chain of command. Utilizing these tools, The Home Depot had developed a great first point for handling their Reputational Crisis. The Home Depots crisis management skills were analyzed in a SWOT analysis, which can be viewed in appendix A.In mainstream media, the public tends to remember the negative and forget the positive. Regardless of how many marvellous things The Home Depot had done for the community, the current reputational attack was going to be remembered the most. Blakes swift receipt was both beneficial and harmful to The Home Depot in my opinion. I agree the Home Depot needed to respond quickly to the article in time, I feel they should have brought the medias attention to the article through a press conference rather than by a post on a message board. If The Home Depot had made a verbal response, they could have put their own pull on the article.Blakes apology was a good tactic which could have been carried over to a verbal response. Reputational attacks are bound to happen to major companies and The Home Depot needs to learn from this and be prepared to respond through positive publicity. Ways to accomplish this would be through donations, charity events, sales, or other(a) generous acts which would benefit the community. These acts could help cover reputational attacks. The Home Depot also needs be prepared with the proper chain of command to respond to situations like these (Herman). Analysis Decision Making BiasesThe Home Depots reputation crisis presented several decision making parti prises which involved crisis management situations where decisions had to be made under uncertainty. These biases included overconfidence, inertia, discriminating perception, representation, and self-serving biases. The overconfidence bias was based on the illusion that a company was topping to its competition, allowing the company to focus on successes and forget the situations where failures occurred. The Home Depot most likely assumed they were one step ahead of the competition.This assumption led them to cogitate their customers also felt The Home Depot was a superior company. Unfortunately, this was not the case and was revealed through the MSN article. The inertia bias was based upon the term procrastination which demonstrates when a projects present(prenominal) effect is unpleasant a company will delay the project even if the long term reward outweighs the immediate negative effect. Essentially, this was a probable cause why The Home Depot postponed modify upon customer service, products, inventory, and cleanliness before it was attacked by the media.The Home Depot also likely encountered the selective perception bias. This bias focuses on instances where a company was influenced by its own base of interpretation more than the environment around them. In simplistic terms, The Home Depot had tunnel vision and was not focusing on the needs of their customers. The representation bias also applies to crisis management when companies ignore the laws of random occurrences and evaluate the likelihood of an event (social disaster such as the reputation attack on The Home Depot) based on how near they check some other event (natural disaster for instance).Lastly, b ut not least, the self-serving bias focuses on situations where a company takes recognition for successes but blame external factors for failures. The Home Depot could have easily gone(p) down this path with its reputation crisis, but it stood up to its own mistakes and faced the issue head on (Lehrer). Analysis Crisis Leadership Now As discussed in the introduction, The Home Depots Disaster Management plan was based on three concepts which included speed, preparedness, and a clear chain of command. Throughout the eld, The Home Depot proved their Disaster Management plan worked for various tragedies encountered by the company.Their methods have fallen set in line with approaches mentioned in the book, Crisis Leadership Now. Within this book, it states If businesses are ready to survive and recover, the nation our sparing are more secure (Barton). The Home Depot was prepared and wasnt afraid to get involved. The Home Depots Disaster Management plan also went along with the mater ial within the Crisis Leadership Now, by showing The Home Depot practiced the idea that a company can top hat shield itself not just by assuming its protected, but by investigating deeper into dominance problems and exposures.Along with that, The Home Depot was also promoting family and individual preparedness for disasters. Home Depots in style(p) crisis involving the companys reputation dealt with managing a crisis and handling key stakeholders. With such a public cry out for improvement, a quick response was needed to keep control of the situation. Crisis Leadership Now explains an 8 hour window concept where If you can capture what has happened, who is impacted, and how you intend to communicate your response with a clear plan of action within 8 hours, you have the foundation for an excellent recovery plan (Barton).I believe The Home Depot followed this concept in formalizing a response on the MSN. com message board. The question which arises however is whether or not they s hould have carried the companys response over to a verbal state that would have appealed to more dissatisfied customers. Analysis Managing the surprising The Home Depots Disaster Management Plan also follows several principles for HROs (high reliability organizations) that were laid out in the book Managing the Unexpected. There are a total of 5 principles which include 1.Preoccupation with Failure Do not focus primarily on business successes. 2. Reluctance to Simplify Interpretations See as much as possible and welcome diversity. 3. Sensitivity to Operations Be more attentive to the front line and be less focused on strategy. 4. Commitment to Resilience Have the ability to bounce back after mistakes and learn from them. 5. Deference to expertness Do not focus expertise decisions on a hierarchic system where the top level makes all decisions. Place authority with person(s) with most expertise wherever they are located in the hierarchy. Weick) It is in my opinion that The Hom e Depot closely followed all five of the principles above. The two that stand out the most to me are the companys Commitment to Resilience and Deference to Expertise. The Home Depots commitment to resilience can easily be seen over the years where the company produced a quick turn around after major natural disasters, as well as their response after the companys latest reputational crisis Also, the companys deference to expertise can be seen as top executives gave more power to the individual store managers.The executives realized that the special store managers had more expertise for the individual store location than executives did. The fact that The Home Depot closely follows all five of the principles stated above shows that the company is a highly reliable organization (Weick). close The Home Depot has become an industry leader in Crisis Management. They advance to learn from their mistakes as well as from experience. The Home Depot should keep in mind there is always room f or improvement.The key is not only to have plans set in place for natural disasters, but also for disasters such as reputational attacks. The Home Depot should continue to prepare for all sorts of tragedies. This will only insure their senior status in the field, as well as reassure customers of their core values. The Home Depot should rejoice in their successes and embrace their faults when trying to improve. Negative publicity will always be a concern for such a large company, but with a secure plan of attack, The Home Depot will continue to lead the way for home improvement.

Hamlet - Ghosts Speech - Act 1 Essay Example for Free

settlement Ghosts Speech manage 1 EssayIn the beginning of the play, the reader is introduced to the disorder in Denmark, a prevalent motif. The mysterious death of the king spurred the disorder, and the prospect of revenge was magnified by the supposed display of the late King junctures rival modality. The ghosts appearance and subsequent speech come to the fore the disorder by validating the readers suspicion of Claudius as a murderer and an incestuous, two-timing(a) serpent.Hamlet is torn by this revelation, and responds with justified drama. Thus far Hamlet had a few reasons to hate Claudius the ghosts message emboldened everything he had suspected and even added to it. Previously in Act One, Hamlet had criticized Claudius for a few major grievances for being opportunist upon the death of his father by marrying his pertly widowed mother in order to seize the throne instead of Hamlet, for not properly mourning the king by waiting just a month to take his wife, and for acting like an animate being by behaving in an incestuous and lustful manner. By playing on many of the same metaphors as Hamlet and bringing forth new claims in like manner, the ghost- whose word the reader takes as truth- bolsters Hamlets claims.In the ghosts rhetoric, Claudius is an unnatural, murderous serpent.(sc. 5 ln. 43) As a fat weed, his parasitic temper is apparent and matches Hamlets assessment of the situation as an unweeded garden. (sc. 5 ln. 39) (sc. 2 ln. 139) Later, the ghost goes on to describe lewdness courting virtue in Claudius despicable new relationship.(sc. 5 ln. 60-1) To Hamlet and the ghost, the new sum total is an embodiment of evil though it holds an honorable, royal position. The royal bed is now a couch for highlife and incest. (sc 5. ln.89-90) The queen has been corrupted by wicked wit and gifts and succumbed by what almost sounds like magic. (sc. 5 ln. 51) This too plays on the motif of unnatural existence in Hamlet as exemplified by the gho st.The ghost refers to humans opinion as the ear of Denmark. (sc.5 ln.43) By misleading this one representative ear, the entire country has been misled.The ghost then furthers the ear imagery by describing how he was personally poisoned through his ear. This deception perpetrated by the flow king adds to the sense of unrest. The late Hamlet was sleeping within (his) orchard, an emphatically innocent action, as the succus was poured into his ear and coursed through his body like quicksilver. (sc. 5 ln. 66)The poison tetter(ed)aboutwith vile and loathsome crust. (sc. 5 ln.78-79) This vivid and gory translation adds to the sense of decay and discord. As Marcellus put it, something is rotten in the articulate of Denmark. (sc.4 ln. 100) Then the ghost talks about how that napping time was his secure hour. (sc.5 ln. 68) This describes the feeling of routine that once existed in the kingdom. Now time is ill-fated and nothing is happens in a proper time because of Claudius unnatural mu rder.The senses of touch and sight are very important in this speech. The ghost carefully describes how things looked and felt to actualize his feelings to Hamlet and the reader. When describing the queen, he uses a prickly set of descriptive words. She isnt just part of a cursed union, she has thorns that in her bosom lodge to prick and sting her, by some heavenly will. (sc, 5 ln. 94-5) Additionally, the description of the poisoning is graphic to make it personal and real for Hamlet.

Identify the historical and cultural factors Essay Example for Free

Identify the diachronic and cultural factors EssayIdentify the historical and cultural factors that contribute to the development of the acquirement perspective. To what extent is the reading perspective relevant today?The study of how humans learn is a dominant component of the learning perspective. The study of behaviour in this perspective and is also comm scarce get alongn as the Behaviouristic Approach, as they believe that behaviour is the only valid info in psychology. Behaviourism developed simultaneously in the joined States and Russia in relation to many factors.Traditional Behaviourists believed that all organisms learn in the same way, and could be explained by the processes of genuine and operant actoring. Learning can be defined as a comparatively permanent change in behaviour and/or knowledge that occurs as a result of invest and/or experience in the surroundings. Psychologists working within this perspective have investigated he ways in which behaviour changes, usually using laboratory experiments, and often-using non-human animals.The Learning perspective developed simultaneously in the United States and Russia with American Theorists John Watson, Albert Bandura and Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov.The way in which behaviour can be observed is seen as being objectively or unbiased, and this is the opposite to the theory of introspection. The unreliability of the way in which winive data is obtained in introspection is one of the main criticisms that lead to the rise of behaviourism. In introspection the data accumulate in said to be subjective and therefore biased in the sense that it comes from ones own mind. prove me a dozen healthy infantsand my own specified world to bring them up in and grisly guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any face of specialist I might select doctor, lawyerand yes, even beggarman and thief.1John Watson 1913Watson wrote an article titled Psychology as the behaviourist views it. This article, which set break all main assumptions and principles, sparked the rise of the behaviourist movement in 1913.Albert Bandura was the major motivator behind the social learning theory, which included cognitive factors that were not incorporated by behaviourists, as they thought behaviour was almost entirely determined by the environment. Bandura suggests that much behaviour, including aggression, is learnt from the environment through funding and the process of modelling. Bandura integrated cognitive influences and called his modified theory the social learning theory. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, whilst conducting experiments on the digestive systems on dogs stumbled across the developed principles of classical instruct. All these factors contributed to the advancement of the learning perspective, as we know it today.Key concepts of the perspective are classical and operant conditioning, social, latent and insight learning. All concepts are build from th e historical and cultural factors that gave rise to the learning perspective. Findings after conduction of experiments show a remarkable relevance to todays society and knowledge. Whether it is classical conditioning and relating findings to aversion therapy or operant conditionings relation to animal training or modifying behaviour through reinforcement and punishment. Therefore it is important to research experimenters who performed relevant experiments to relate their results to today.Classical condition is learning through association, which was accidentally found by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was conducting experiments in relation to dogs digestive systems when he stumbled on, what is known as, classical conditioning. Pavlov noticed that dogs did not only salivate when food was placed in breast of them, but they also salivated before the food was inclined to them, and was triggered by other factors such as upon auditory modality or seeing Pavlov, or the sound of footsteps. Pavlov thus discovered that the anticipation of receiving the food made the dogs salivate. Pavlov then(prenominal) modified his experiment to test whether using a stimulus such as meat powder, which cause salivation, could be varied and a conditioned stimulus such as the ringing of a bell could also bring about the unconditioned response of salivation originally ca utilize by being presented with the sight of the meat powder.Pavlov used a soundproof room, to minimise and limit extraneous variables so he could be sure that it was i.e. only the ringing of a bell that was affecting the salivation after the conditioned stimulus. John Watson performed another example of classical conditioning when he experimented on Little Albert in 1920. Behaviourists learning theorists such as Watson suggested that phobias were conditioned stirred responses. Certain stimuli, such as sudden loud noises, naturally cause reverence reactions, and stimuli that become associated with them leave acquire the same emotional responses. Little Albert was presented with a white laboratory rat to which he showed no fear response. Watson then associated the loud noise simultaneously with the presentation of the rat, Little Albert then associated fear with the rat, and was then able to generalise these response to other fluffy white objects.The study with Little Albert has serious respectable problems. Firstly that he participated in the experiment involuntary and without the consent of his mother. Also Watson reported that they hesitated about transaction with the experiment but comforted themselves that Albert would encounter such traumatic associations when he left the sheltered environment of the nursery anyway. This is not a very good ethical defence, especially since they believed such associations might go indefinitely and did not leave sufficient time to remove the fear afterwards, despite knowing that Albert was delinquent to leave.Classical conditioning can be r elated to today with the development of therapies using classical conditioning techniques to extinguishing fear. The first technique of therapy is the systematic desensitation, which aims to extinguish the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus gradually, step by step. This therapy was developed mainly by Wolpe, who utter that in order for the fear to be removed gradually, a hierarchy of fear must be formed and ranked by the subject from least fearful to most fearful. The subject is then given training in deep muscle relaxation techniques so it can then be used at each stage of the hierarchy starting from the least fearful to the most and only progressing when the subject feels sufficiently relaxed.This method of treatment has a very luxuriously success rate with specific phobias, i.e. of incident animals. It is considered to work particularly well because the response of fear and relaxation is said to be impossible for them t o comprise at the same time. The second techniques of therapy are implosion and the flooding techniques, when both methods produce extinction of a phobias fear by the continual and dramatic presentation of the phobic or situation. Wolpe in 1960 forced a misfire with a fear of cars into the back seat of a car and drove her around for 4 hours square(p) until her hysterical fear completely disappeared.Marks et al (1981) say that this kind of therapy works because eventually some(prenominal) stimulus exhaustion takes place, as you cannot scream forever and then the conditioned fear response extinguishes. The technique most similar to classical conditioning is called Aversion Therapy, and is most relevant to todays treatment of alcoholism, smoking or overeating. The technique aims to remove undesirable responses to certain stimuli by associating them with aversive stimuli, in the hope that the undesirable responses leave alone be avoided in the future.Aversion therapy has been used to treat alcoholism, for example the person is given alcohol with a nausea-inducing drug unsuspectingly, and should then feel sick. The person associates drinking with their intestinal distress and results found that two out of three people did not have any alcohol a year later. Although it has a high success rate, ethical considerations of deliberating causing discomfort to another person through deception must be taken into account. The limitation of this type of therapy is its difficulty to generalise to other situations from where the learning took place.